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    《2007CARI腎結石的臨床診斷指南》內容簡(jiǎn)介：

    Kidney stones are usually asymptomatic but may presentwith loin pain, dysuria or haematuria during ureteric pas-sage. Lower ureteric stones may cause relatively more blad-der irritative symptoms （dysuria, frequency）。 Alternativecauses for flank pain unrelated to ureteral obstruction, orextra-ureteric causes of ureteric obstruction, need exclusion.Unenhanced helical computed tomography scan （UHCT）is currently the imaging mode of choice for acute flank pain,but has not been compared with urethroscopy. No 'goldstandard' diagnostic test exists.

    《2007CARI腎結石的臨床診斷指南》內容預覽：

    The presence of risk factors increases the risk of recurrentstone formation, although the majority of stone formershave none identifiable. Risk factors and conditions associ-ated with renal calculi include:

    Male sex, family history of renal calculi, obesity and themetabolic syndrome

    Primary metabolic abnormalities （e.g. hypercalcinuria,hyperuricosuria, hypocitraturia, hyperoxaluria, cystinuria）

    Hypercalcemia of any cause （e.g. hyperparathyroidism,malignancy, sarcoidosis, prolonged immobilization）

    Intestinal disease （e.g. Crohn's disease, laxative abuse,jejunoileal bypass）， renal tubular acidosis （Type 1）， gout,recurrent urinary tract infection

    Chronic volume depletion （e.g. inadequate intake or hotclimates）

    Urological anatomic abnormalities promoting urinarystasis, andDrug use （loop diuretics, antacids, acetazolamide, indi-navir, corticosteroids, theophyllines, aspirin, allopurinol,vitamins D & C）。

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